No Child Left Behind vs. Inequalities Essay Example for Free

No Child Left Behind vs. Inequalities Essay The American educational system suffers from a wide disparity between the poor and rich schools in the country. Race relations is a prominent cause of the problem wherein the white-dominated school districts get the most funding and government support while non-white children live in poverty, academic underachievement, indifferent government officials and hopelessness. The No Child Left Behind Act seeks to lessen this disparity by equalizing governmental funding, ensuring a competent teaching workforce and instilling a system of accountability. However, like many other laws, No Child Left Behind has its shortcomings and needs re-examination and/or fine tuning to ensure its effectiveness. No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 and the Issues in Jonathan Kozol’s Book Through the book Savage Inequalities: Children in America’s Schools, Kozol (1991) made several noteworthy points such as (1) many schools in poverty-stricken areas have non-white children comprising the majority of their student populations, (2) poor, run-down schools in non-white neighborhoods view themselves as serving those children who have little value to the country, (3) students, school administrators, public officials and community residents have a shared feeling of hopelessness for their plight and nobody is willing to be accountable for the problem, and (4) increased funding for the poorest schools in America can make a difference if this is accompanied by a change in the society’s attitude (pp. 82, 114, 243). Former US President George W. Bush signed â€Å"The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001† into law on January 8, 2002 as part of his educational reform agenda (â€Å"No Child†, 2007). The Act sought for immense transformation in America’s K-12 education by underscoring four principles: (1) greater accountability for results, (2) increased flexibility and local control, (3) expanded options for parents, and (4) an emphasis on proven and effective teaching methods (â€Å"New Jersey†, 2006). The four principles are aligned with the areas of racial inequalities among schools as identified by Kozol (Check, 1992, p. 1) which include funding, governmental assistance, political support, buildings upkeep, quality of educators, availability of and funding for school supplies, extra-curricular facilities, overcrowding and accountability system (Warner, 2002, n. d. ). Extent of Effectiveness of the Act Some of No Child Left Behind’s remedies are more pronounced in student academic performance. Thompson and Barnes (2007) cite that albeit slow progress, NCLB yields favorable results in strengthening student academic achievement. For example, scores in mathematics among 4th and 8th graders from 2003 to 2005 increased nationwide with scores for Hispanic and African American students showing significant improvement in the same period. Further, 4th graders’ national average scores in reading improved while achievement gap between African American and Hispanic 4th graders narrowed slightly from 2003 to 2005 (p. 16). More than two-thirds of the states also reported that test scores disparity in terms of race, income, or language background has lessened or stayed the same (Rentner et. al. , 2006 as cited in Thompson and Barnes, 2007, p. 16). On the contrary, the mostly debated shortcomings of the law fall in three areas. First, its stringent assessment and reporting requirements forced educators to allocate instructional time in preparation for assessment thereby suppressing creative learning in the classroom. Secondly, the Department of Education has failed to immediately ensure and monitor that the states comply with the NCLB’s teacher quality provisions; this being done only two years after the effectivity of the law. Lastly, fund disbursements in some states primarily devoted to professional development were done without full consideration of effectiveness or content quality of the trainings (Thompson and Barnes, 2007, pp. 19-20). Conclusion In summary, the NCLB has laid the foundations for educational reform and academic equality but continuous evaluation is essential to make the law work for all. References Check, J. (1992). Book Review: Savage Inequalities: Children in America’s Shools, by Jonathan Kozol. The Quarterly, 14 (3). Retrieved April 10, 2009, from http://www. nwp. org/cs/public/print/resource/1139 Kozol, J. (1991). Savage Inequalities: Children in America’s Schools. New York: Harper Collins New Jersey No Child Left Behind. (2006). Retrieved April 10, 2009, from http://www. nj. gov/education/grants/nclb/

Risk-based Access Control Model for the Internet of Things

Risk-based Access Control Model for the Internet of Things Developing an adaptive Risk-based access control model for the Internet of Things Hany F. Atlam a, c Gary B. Wills a, Robert J. Walters a, Joshua Daniel c a Electronic and Computer Science Dept., University of Southampton, UK b Security Futures Practice, BT Research Innovation, Ipswich, UK c Computer Science and Engineering Dept., Faculty of Electronic Engineering, Menoufia University, Egypt Abstract The Internet of Things (IoT) is creating a revolution in the number of connected devices. Cisco reported that there were 25 billion IoT devices in 2015 and modest estimation that this number will almost double by 2020. Society has become dependent on these billions of devices, devices that are connected and communicating with each other all the time with information constantly share between users, services, and internet providers. The emergent IoT devices as a technology are creating a huge security rift between users and usability, sacrificing usability for security created a number of major issues. First, IoT devices are classified under Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) that blows any organization security boundary and make them a target for espionage or tracking. Second, the size of the data generated from IoT makes big data problems pale in comparison not to mention IoT devices need a real-time response. Third, is incorporating secure access and control for IoT devices ranging from edge nodes devices to application level (business intelligence reporting tools) is a challenge because it has to account for several hardware and application levels. Establishing a secure access control model between different IoT devices and services is a major milestone for the IoT. This is important because data leakage and unauthorized access to data have a high impact on our IoT devices. However, traditional access control mode ls with the static and rigid infrastructure cannot provide the required security for the IoT infrastructure. Therefore, this paper proposes a risk-based access control model for IoT technology that takes into account real-time data information request for IoT devices and gives dynamic feedback. The proposed model uses IoT environment features to estimate the security risk associated with each access request using user context, resource sensitivity, action severity and risk history as inputs for security risk estimation algorithm that is responsible for access decision. Then the proposed model uses smart contracts to provide adaptive features in which the user behavior is monitored to detect any abnormal actions from authorized users. Keywords Security, Internet of Things, Risk, access control, Adaptive, Context. The Internet of Things (IoT) is growing in different ways. The adoption rate of the IoT is at least five times faster than the adoption of electricity and telephony [1]. Moreover, it is becoming the backbone of the future of the Internet that encompasses various applications and devices. The IoT devices are interconnected using different communication technologies such as wireless, wired and mobile networks [2]. The concept of the IoT was first mentioned by Kevin Ashton in 1999 [3]. He has said, The Internet of Things has the potential to change the world, just as the Internet did. Maybe even more so. Later, the IoT was formally presented by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in 2005 [4]. The ITU defines the IoT as: a global infrastructure for the Information Society, enabling advanced services by interconnecting (physical and virtual) things based on, existing and evolving, interoperable information and communication technologies[5]. The IoT faces many challenges that stand as a barrier to the successful implementation of IoT applications. The security is considered the most difficult challenge that needs to be addressed. This challenge is more complicated due to the dynamic and heterogeneous nature of the IoT system [6], [7]. Authentication and access control models are the essential elements to address the security issue in the IoT. They can prevent unauthorized users from gaining access to system resources, prevent authorized users from accessing resources in an unauthorized manner and allow authorized users to access resources in an authorized manner [8], [9]. The main purpose of the access control is to reject unauthorized users and limit operations of authorized users using a certain device. In addition, it tries to prevent the activity that could cause a security breach [7]. A powerful access control model should satisfy security requirements of confidentiality, integrity, and availability [10]. Traditional access control approaches are static in nature as they depend on predefined policies that always give the same outcome regardless of the situation. They are context insensitive. Furthermore, they require a rigid authentication infrastructure [11], [12]. So they cannot provide for distributed and dynamic environment as the IoT systems [13]. Dynamic access control approaches are more appropriate to the IoT. This is because they are characterized by using not only the policies but also environment features that are estimated in real-time to determine access decisions. The dynamic features can include trust, risk, context, history and op erational need [14], [15]. This paper presents an adaptive risk-based access control model for the IoT. This model can dynamically estimate the security risk associated with each access request to make the access decision. It uses real-time user context attributes, resource sensitivity, action severity and risk history as inputs to estimate the security risk value of each access request. In addition, the user behavior is monitored to detect any abnormal misuse. This paper will start by discussing concepts of access control in the IoT in section II; Section III presents access control challenges in the IoT; Section IV introduces different access control models; Section V discusses the concept of risk-based access control model; Section VI presents the proposed model; Section VII illustrates the process flow of the proposed model; Section VIII presents the related works, and Section IX is the conclusion The IoT devices send and receive a variety of information about owners behavior. Therefore, it is important to protect not only the communication process between IoT devices but also authentication and access control of IoT devices [16]. The access control process works with many layers of the IoT reference model that is shown in figure 1. The control process flows from top to down. Therefore, the access control works with different data whether at storage, at motion, or at IoT device itself. Therefore, the access control is a big issue in the IoT that need addressing. Fig. 1. The IoT reference model [16] The main function of access control is to grant access rights only to authorized users. Also, it prevents authorized users from accessing system resources in an unauthorized manner [7]. A powerful access control model should fulfill security demands of confidentiality, integrity, and availability [10]. In the IoT, the access control is required to ensure that only authorized users can update device software, access sensor data or command the actuators to perform an operation [17]. There are three ways to implement access control in the IoT systems; centralized, centralized and contextual, and distributed [18]. In the centralized approach, the access control logic is implemented at a central entity. This entity could be a server with direct communication to IoT devices that it manages or another entity in a different location. Therefore, IoT devices send their data to the central entity that is responsible for making access control decisions [18]. In the centralized and contextual approach, IoT devices are not completely passive entities; this is because they participate in the access control decisions. The access control logic is implemented at a central entity as in centralized approach, but the contextual features from IoT devices are sent to the central entity. These features are used to make access decisions [18]. In the distributed approach, all the access control logic is embedded into IoT devices. These devices are being provided with necessary resources to process and send information to other services and devices. Therefore, IoT devices have to have the ability to perform the authorization process without the need for a central entity [18]. Due to the distributed and dynamic nature of the IoT, there are many challenges that should be addressed when implementing an access control model. These requirements include; Interoperability with multiple users: Access control policies should be designed to support multiple organizations. For instance, each organization creates its own policies and respect other collaborating organizations policies [24]. Dynamic interaction: Access control policies should be predictable and specified in a dynamic and continuous way by considering context changing during the access control process [25]. Context awareness: The context is considered one of the core features since it enables intelligent interactions between users and IoT devices. Using the context will make access decisions dynamically determined based on surrounding environment features [17]. Usability: The access control model should be easily administrated, expressed and modified. It also should provide suitable easy to use interfaces for both consumers and devices needs [26]. Limited resources: The resources associated with IoT devices such as energy, memory, and processing power are limited due to devices lightweight. Therefore, the access control model designed for the loT should support efficient solutions [17]. Scalability: The IoT connects billions of devices. The access control model should be extensible in size, structure, and number of devices [17]. Delegation of authority: In many IoT scenarios, there are many devices that are operating on behalf of a user and other scenarios where a device may operate on a third partys behalf for a specific period of time. The access control model should implement delegation of authority to provide more usability and flexibility to the IoT system [24]. Auditability: Any and every access control needs to be auditable. Hence, collection and storage of evidence necessary for context awareness. This becomes a challenge when utilizing a distributed approach [17]. To ensure confidentiality and integrity of system resources, the access control is used to guarantee that only authorized users granted the appropriate access permissions. There are several access control models which can be divided into two classes; traditional and dynamic access control models [19]. Traditional access control approaches are based on policies that are static and rigid in nature. These policies are predefined and always give the same outcome regardless of the situation. Therefore, this static approach fails to adapt to varied and changing conditions during making access decisions [20]. There are three main traditional access control models; Discretionary Access Control (DAC), Mandatory Access Control (MAC) and Role-based Access Control (RBAC). DAC model was designed for multi-user databases and systems with a few previously known users. All the system resources are under full control from the user. DAC grants access depending on the user identity and authorization, which is defined for open policies. The owner of the resource can grant the access to any user [19]. While MAC model is concerned with confidentiality and integrity of information, so it mainly used in military and government applications. In MAC, the security policy is controlled by a security policy administrator and the user does not have the capability to override it [19]. RBAC model is consists of three elements: users (subjects requesting access), roles (collection of permission) and operations (actions on target resource). Access permissions are related to roles and the appropriate role is granted to the user. A single user can be associated with one or more roles, and a single role can include one or more user. RBAC provides a classification of users bas ed on their roles [21]. Dynamic access control models are characterized by using not only the access policies but also dynamic contextual features which are estimated in real-time at the time of the request [22]. These real-time features can include trust, risk, context, history and operational need [23], [14]. In this paper, we propose a risk-based access control model that uses the security risk as the main criterion for making the access permissions. The risk can be defined as the possibility of loss or injury. Generally, the risk is about some event that may occur in the future and cause losses. One such risk is the leakage of sensitive information by users. The access control is one of the approaches used to mitigate against the security risk [27]. Risk-based access control model permits or denies access requests dynamically based on the estimated risk of each access request [20]. This model performs a risk analysis on each user access request to make the access decision [7]. Mathematically, the most common formula to represent the risk in quantitative terms is: (1) Where likelihood represents the probability of an incident to happen while impact represents the estimation of the value of the damage regarding that incident [20]. Quantified risk-based access control models are divided into two types: non-adaptive and adaptive. The fundamental distinction between adaptive and non-adaptive approaches is that the adaptive model requires a system monitoring process and the risk estimation module adaptively adjusts user permissions based on the users activities during access sessions. While non-adaptive approach only calculates the risk during each session creation and does not have run-time monitoring and abnormality detection capability [11]. Dynamic access control approaches use real-time environment features to make the access decision. One of these features is the security risk associated with the access request, which will be used in our proposed model to make the access decision. The proposed model is shown in figure 2. The proposed model has four inputs: user/agent context, resource sensitivity, action severity and risk history. These inputs/risk factors are used to estimate the security risk value associated with each access request. The final risk value is then compared with risk policies to make the access decision. To make the model adaptive, the user behavior is monitored to detect any abnormal actions from authorized users. This model can provide an appropriate security level while ensuring flexibility and scalability to the IoT system. Fig. 2. The proposed adaptive risk-based access control model As shown in figure 2, the user/agent context represents the environmental features that are embedded with the user/agent at the time of making the access request. These contexts are used to determine the security risk value associated with the user requesting the access to the system. Location and time are the most common user contexts [28]. Resource sensitivity represents how valuable the resource/data is to the owner or to the service provider. Data is assigned a level of sensitivity based on who should have access to it and how much damage would be done if it were disclosed. A risk metric is assigned to each resource in the IoT system depending on how valuable the resource data is to the owner. For instance, the higher the data sensitivity, the higher the risk metric associated with the resource. Action severity represents the consequences of a certain action on a particular resource in terms of security requirements of confidentiality, integrity, and availability. Different opera tions have different impacts and so have different risk values. For instance, the risk of a view operation is lower than the risk of a delete operation. The user risk history is used to estimate the risk value of each access request. This is because the risk history reflects previous users behavior patterns. Moreover, it is used to identify good and bad authorized users and predict the user future behavior. Risk estimation module is responsible for taking the input features to quantify the risk value that is associated with the access request. The ultimate goal is to develop an efficient risk estimation process. The access decision determines whether access is granted or denied according to the risk policies. Risk policies or access control policies are mainly used by the risk estimation module to make the access decisions. These policies are created by the resource owner to identify terms and conditions of granting or denying the access. The overall risk value is examined with the risk policies to determine the access decision. The proposed model is trying to improve the flexibility of access control by monitoring the user behavior during the access session. In current access control models, if the decision is to grant access to the user, then there is no way to prevent any abnormal and unusual data access from the authorized user. So a monitoring module is needed to adaptively adjust the risk value based on the user behavior during the access session. Applying smart contracts to accomplish this process is a big challenge especially it will be the first time to use the smart contracts in this context. Smart contracts are treated as a software code that runs on a blockchain [29]. It can force a functional implementation of particular demands and can confirm that certain conditions or terms were met or not [30]. Hence, the monitored user behavior information will be compared with the smart contract to ensure that the user acts according to the terms of the smart contract so as to prevent any potential securit y breach during the access sessions. The process flow of the proposed model is shown in figure 3. The flow starts when the access control manager receives an access request from a user. After that, the access control manager asks for the system contexts (user/agent, resource, and action) of the requested user in addition to the user risk history. The risk estimation module uses these contexts with the risk history to estimate the overall access risk value related to the requested user, then the estimated risk value is compared with risk policies to determine the access decision. At this point, we have two decisions: a) If the access is granted, then the monitoring module will track the user behavior. The smart contract will use the monitored data to determine if the user follows the contract terms or not. If yes, then it will keep monitoring the user behavior, while if not, then it will return to the risk estimation module to reduce user permissions or terminate the access session to stop any security breach. b) If the access is denied, then the system asks the user to provide additional proof of identification so as not to block an authorized user and reduce the false-positive rate. If the user provides the required identification, then the access is granted and the flow continues as in the first decision, while if not, the system denies the access. Fig. 3. The process flow of the adaptive risk-based access control model This section provides a brief summary of the models that are related to the proposed model. A number of studies have been conducted the security risk for dynamic access control models. The JASON report [31] proposed three main elements for a risk-based access control model: estimating the risk value associated with each access request, identifying acceptance levels of risk in a certain domain, and controlling information sharing based on the estimated risk and access control policies. Risk Adaptable Access Control (RAdAC) model has been proposed by McGraw [32]. It is based on estimating the security risk and operational needs to grant or deny the access. This model estimates the risk associated with each access request then compares it with the access control policy. After that, the system verifies the operational needs; if the associated operational needs and the policy are met then access is granted. However, the author did not provide details about how to quantitatively estimate risk and operational needs. Also, Kandala et al. [33] have provided an approach that identifies different risk components of the RAdAC model using attribute-based access control approach. A dynamic and flexible risk-based access control model has been proposed by Diep et al. [12]. This model uses the risk assessment to estimate the risk value depending on outcomes of actions in term of availability, confidentiality, and integrity. However, this model did not provide a standard about how to evaluate the risk value for each state of the environment and for each outcome of action, did not use user context, and lacked risk adaptive features. A framework proposed by Khambhammettu et al. [34] that based on estimating object sensitivity, subject trustworthiness, and the difference between object sensitivity and subject trustworthiness using a risk assessment. However, the model did not provide how to estimate the risk value for each situation of the environment. Besides, the model requires a system administrator to give a reasonable value for each input feature in the early state of the risk assessment process and lacked risk adaptive features. A fuzzy Multi-Level Security (MLS) access control model has been proposed to manage risk information flows based on estimating its operational needs, risk possibility and environment features [20]. It estimates the risk based on the difference between subject security level and object security level. Similarly, Ni, Bertino, Lobo [35] have proposed a risk-based access control model that based on fuzzy inferences. It showed that fuzzy inference is a good approach for estimating access security risks. However, both models ignored the past behavior of users in the risk estimation process, lacked risk adaptive features and time overhead of fuzzy inference system is high. A fuzzy-based risk access control model has been proposed by J. Li, Bai, Zaman [27] to estimate the risk of healthcare information access. A risk metric is associated with data sensitivity, action severity, and risk history as a fuzzy value to determine the appropriate control of healthcare information access in a cloud computing. However, this model did not provide how to quantitatively estimate the risk. Also, no clear risk boundaries are defined and lacked risk adaptive features. A dynamic risk-based decision method has been proposed by Shaikh et al. [14]. This method is based on using the past behavior to identify good and bad authorized users. It depends on granting reward and penalty points to users after the completion of transactions. However, the past user behavior (reward/penalty) values are not enough to decide the access decision. Besides, no risk prediction technique is used and lacked risk adaptive features. A risk analysis approach has been proposed by Rajbhandari Snekkenes [36] to provide access decisions dynamically. This approach is based on preferences or values of benefit which subjects can provide rather than subjective probability using the game theory. A simple privacy scenario between a user and an online bookstore is introduced to provide an initial perception of the concept. However, using only benefits of the subject to determine the access decision is not enough to develop a flexible and scalable access control model. Also, it lacked risk adaptive features. A task-based access control model has been proposed by Sharma et al. [37] to estimate the risk value using functions that based on the action a user wants to perform. The risk value is computed in terms of different actions and corresponding outcomes. The outcomes and the risk probability are determined along with the level of data sensitivity. The previous users behavior patterns are then used to estimate the overall risk value. The estimated risk value is compared with the risk threshold to determine the access decision. However, it lacked risk adaptive features. A contextual risk-based access control model has been proposed by Lee et al. [13]. The model gathers all useful information from the environment and evaluates them from the security perspective. Risk assessment with multifactor evaluation process (MFEP) technique is applied to estimate the associated risk value. The risk value is based on outcomes of actions in term of availability, confidentiality, and integrity. This model is evaluated to manage the access control in a hospital. However, this model ignored the past user behavior and risk adaptive features as well. A risk-based access control model has been proposed by Dos Santos et al. [7]. This model employed the notion of quantifying risk metrics and aggregating them. It is based on the idea of risk policies, which allow service providers and resource owners to define their own metrics, allowing greater flexibility to the access control system. However, this model requires a system administrator to ensure the minimum security is achieved. Table 1 provides a summary of the related risk-based access control models. It contains the risk estimation technique used to estimate the risk value in each model, risk factors used to estimate the risk value and the limitations of each model regarding our proposed model. In summary, one can say that the problem of the access control, especially in the IoT, needs more investigation. Current access control models concentrate only on providing access decisions without providing any way to prevent any abnormal and unusual data access from authorized users, whereas our approach is based on providing the access decision and monitoring the user behavior to detect any abnormal actions. The novelty of our approach is based on providing the adaptive features and requesting user context attributes to the risk-based access control in the IoT system. To the best of my knowledge, using smart contracts to monitor the user access behavior will be the first try. Table 1. Some of the risk-based access control models Previous work Risk Estimation method Risk factors Limitations [20] Fuzzy MLS Model Difference between subject security level and object security level The user past behavior has not been used to detect user future behavior and lacked adaptive features. [27] Fuzzy Model Data sensitivity, action severity, and user risk history No clear risk boundaries are defined and lacked adaptive features. [35] Fuzzy Inference Object security level and subject security level Time overhead of fuzzy inference is high and lacked adaptive features. [34] Risk Assessment Object sensitivity, subject trust and difference between them User risk history has not been used and lacked adaptive features. [14] Risk Assessment History of reward and penalty points Limited risk factors, no risk prediction technique is used and lacked adaptive features. [36] Game Theory Access benefits of the subject Limited risk factors and lacked adaptive features. [37] Mathematics Functions Data Sensitivity, action severity, and risk history No risk prediction technique has not been used, lacked adaptive features and user context. [13] Risk Assessment Outcomes of actions Limited risk factors, lacked adaptive features and user context. [12] Risk Assessment Outcomes of actions Limited risk factors, no risk prediction technique has been used, lacked adaptive features and user context. [7] Mathematics Functions Risk policies Limited risk factors and lacked adaptive features. The IoT has become a widely examined subject that takes the attention of many researchers, specialists, and experts. Due to the dynamic nature of the IoT, traditional access control approaches cannot provide required security levels as they are based on a static and complex authentication infrastructure. Therefore, the scope of this paper is to develop a dynamic and adaptive risk-based access control model for the IoT. This model can adapt to IoT changing conditions. The proposed model can be realized by estimating the security risk using IoT real-time features at the time of the access request to make the access decision. The model uses user context, resource sensitivity, action severity and risk history as inputs to estimate the overall risk value associated with each access request. The model provides adaptive features to monitor user behavior and prevents any misuses from authorized users using smart contracts. The above work is still in the first stage. In future work, choosing the most appropriate risk estimation technique for a specific IoT context is our highest priority to proceed to implement the model as well as creating different IoT access control case studies with data to evaluate the model. Acknowledgment We acknowledge Egyptian cultural affairs and mission sector and Menoufia University for their scholarship to Hany Atlam that allows the research to be undertaken. References [1]S. Li, L. Da Xu, and S. Zhao, The internet of things: a survey, Inf. Syst. Front., vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 243-259, 2015. [2]M. Elkhodr, S. Shahrestani, and H. Cheung, The Internet of Things: Vision challenges, IEEE 2013 Tencon Spring, TENCONSpring 2013 Conf. Proc., pp. 218-222, 2013. [3]K. Ashton, That Internet of Things Thing, RFID J., p. 4986, 2

Causes of African American Immigration

Causes of African American Immigration Great Migration Slavery, captives these are the terms which are not separable from the history of the United States since the 15th century until today. Mallaika Adero, in a piece called, Up South Stories, studies and letters of African American Migrations mainly focus on the immigration of African Americans to north of the America. Adero was the former member of the class of the Howard university and she focused here studies on social sciences and perused her career as a senior editor. This article highlights the main reasons for immigration of blacks to the north such as better job opportunities, undesirable effects of natural disasters in south, and higher respect for women and children. Moreover, the article explains the political and cultural consequences of the great migration. The first and foremost important reason that clearly explains the blacks immigration is the job opportunities and higher wages that were offered up in the North. According to the author, up until 20th century, years after the slavery trade was ended, the vast majority of the black people still lived in the south and were considered to be the essential part of the agriculture economy. This trend seemed to continue until the first African American generation who were born free. Amiri Baraka stated that a psychological shift à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ made blacks go north (Baraka). Therefore, the new black generation on their path seeking for more freedom, higher wages, and in general better lifestyle began their way to the north. Besides the black peoples motivation to move to other parts of the nation, the north region merchants were interested in absorbing the black laborer due to preventing European immigration to the states during the world war I. This situation eventually led the demand for black workers to boost dramatically in the north. According to Adero, Negroes were allowed to work in factories that they were prohibited before. For instance, the industry of railroads, mechanics, and other manufacturing businesses were in need of black laborers. In addition to the better job opportunities, the second most important reason that was pushing the African Americans to the north was the natural disasters that were happening frequently in the south. The destructive floods and boll weevil insects were the two most important threats to the south businesses. The damage has been to the extent of a loss of 50 percent of the crop, estimated at 400,000 bales of cotton annually, about 4,500,000 bales since the invasion or $250,000,000 worth of cotton. (Adero 3). Based on the stated statistics, the industry of the south was negatively influenced by the insects attacking the cotton plants which consequently prevented the suppliers from improve their business. This situation lead more black citizens to lose their jobs and to distribute to the other regions. As the north areas were becoming a better place to live for the African American people, the black population was gradually decreasing in the south. In early 19th century, the black population in the north reached the limit that could enable them to strengthen their political and economic status by electing a leader from their race who could contributor to the congress. This could potentially be considered as one of the solutions to improve the black peoples power nationwide. However, the author describes this decision as an unwise move. She correlates the consequents of such a decision to the black people during reconstruction days. On the other hand, the author believes the black people should take an alternative path to the liberty when she says The Negroes should support representative men of any color or party, if they stand for a square deal and equal rights for all (Adero 9). The blacks community was developing as their men were getting more involved in the industry. Nearly, n inety percent of the jobs that required skilled labors were occupied by the black workers. This situation led the black community in the north to become more powerful and eventually establish themselves in the congress. One of the factors that played an essential role during the huge migration was the relation between minority and majority groups and how these two could become a complementary of each other. Alain Locke, American writer and philosopher, explains despite the definition of this two status, it has been proven through the history that there is a very narrow difference between them. Therefore, depending on the time and the situation, one could be considered the minority or the dominant majority. The author uses these attitudes to describe the environment existed in the north nations during the great migration.   According to the author, the great migration significantly affected the blacks community to lose their tradition and culture. However, the study of the history demonstrates that they were able to overcome all the cultural disorganization while gradually following the majority group in the society. Generally speaking, These two articles describe the black peoples immigration to the north after the civil war. The author attempts to clearly describe the main problems that African American were confronting through their immigration. Also, the effect of the migration on the black peoples culture and family life were studied by introducing the close relation between minority and majority groups in different societies. Works Cited Malaika Adero, Ed. Up South: Stories, Studies, and Letters of this Centurys African-American Migrations (New York: The New Press, 1993), pp. xvii-32. Alain Locke,   The New Negro (1925), pp. 442-451.

Stalingrad :: essays research papers

The attack came as a complete surprise to the leader of the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin. Despite repeated intelligence warnings, which included the precise day and hour of Germany's incipient assault, Stalin remained convinced that Hitler would not risk an eastern war as long as the British Empire remained undefeated. It has been argued that Stalin in fact planned a pre-emptive attack on Germany for the early summer of 1941, and was then thrown off-balance by the German invasion. 'For two years Soviet forces pushed the German army back into Germany ...' The evidence makes clear the defensive posture of the Soviet Union in 1941. Stalin did not want to risk war, though he hoped to profit from the German-British struggle if he could. In the event, the shock of attack almost unhinged the Soviet state, and by the autumn German forces had destroyed most of the Red Army and the Russian air force, surrounded and besieged Leningrad - where over one million people died of starvation and cold - and were approaching the outskirts of Moscow. The Red Army had sufficient reserves to stop the German army from completing the rout in December 1941, but the following summer German offensives launched far to the south of Moscow, to seize the rich oilfields of the Caucasus and to cut the Volga shipping route, created further chaos. Hitler hoped that German forces would capture the oil and sweep on through the Middle East to meet up with Axis forces in Egypt. The Volga was to be blocked at Stalingrad, after which German forces could wheel northwards to outflank Moscow and the Soviet line. The southern attack failed at Stalingrad. After weeks of chaotic retreats and easy German victories, the Red Army solidified its defence and against all the odds clung on to the battered city. In November 1942 Operation Uranus was launched by the Soviets, and the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad was encircled. Some historians have seen this as the turning point of the war.

Wife of Martin Guerre :: essays research papers

Throughout my travels I had always been mistaken for Martin Guerre, that is how I have come to be here today. He was always spoken about with such respect. A dignified young man, from a well respected peasant family, it was a let down to me that I myself was not a respected man like this Martin. As these occurrences continued to happen I began to wonder about his life, why such a well respected man could leave his wife and son behind, I had been told that he had left his family in Artigues for many years, and they were waiting for his return. His father had past on, and the farm was now waiting for their master. I had no place to go and thought that if I am mistaken so many times for martin then maybe I could go to his household, my intentions were not to stay even this long, but only enough to collect some gold and silver. Over the last few days I have been drawn to the loving and caring nature of this household. Built on strong foundations I have been welcomed back like a triumpha nt army from a great war. Praised for returning, as if nothing had happened.. The feast that was prepared was like none that I had seen before, all they would do was listen to the stories of my travels. This family did not about the eight years that had past, without notice or communication, but relief that the family is complete again. My past has not been one that I have been proud of. I have not been loyal to my family, nor my Kingdom. My family has put a lot of trust in me, but I have let them down, traveling with the wars from town to town. I know it upsets them, and I cannot return to them. I do not want to put some more false hope in their hearts, as I am sure that my past will catch up with me, and again let them down. I am also not one who has abided by the law in the past, committing crimes of theft from many as I pass by, not two weeks ago had I stolen from a man traveling on the same road as I. But since I have come to this caring and loving family, I have seen what I myself have neglected and betrayed in my home town.

Comparing The Haitian To The French Revolution Essay

Haiti, known as Saint-Domingue before the revolution, it was the richest colony in the Americas in 1789. Almost half a million slaves toiled on its sugar, coffee, indigo, and cotton plantations. More than thirty thousand new African slaves arrived each year, both to replace the many that died of overwork or disease and also to fuel the rapid economic expansion that the colony experienced in the 1780s. Before the French revolution, the masters were, first of all, the King; after him, the nobles and clergy. From the King at the head to the poorest noble, they used their power badly. The rulers treated the ruled, the vast mass of the nation, as people created for their convenience, to supply them with money and to serve them. The King demanded great sums to provide armies for his wars, to surround himself with a brilliant and luxurious Court, to defray the expenses of government. As we go further in the French and Haitian revolution, they were both cruel and bloody, were there any signi ficant similarities and differences? They both were spurred for similar reasons by oppressed people, but they were significantly different economically, very different leaders and events. The causes for the French and Haitian revolutions were fairly uniform. An unfair distribution of power between social classes, restricted liberties and representation, and a large gap between the rich and the poor were the main catalysts for both revolutions. The social class situations of Haiti and France were main causes of both revolutions. Social mobility was nearly nonexistent in both societies. The Haitian social class system was particularly stratified because it was based on race. The highest positions in the government and military were only held by Peninsulares. Peninsulares were individuals that were born in Europe and had come over to the colony to rule. Directly under the Peninsulares in the social class system were the Creoles. These individuals controlled most of the land and the bus iness. Creoles were defined as individuals whose parents were both Peninsulares in the colonies. The next social classes were the Mestizo and the Mulattoes, who were half European and half Native American or African. Finally, all pure Africans or Natives were condemned to slavery. Slaves had no property, money, or rights. Most of the individuals in Haiti were slaves. Conversely,  the French social system was also very stratified and consisted heavily of the lowest class. The system is broken down between three estates: the clergy, nobility, and the 3rd estate which consisted of a lower, middle and upper class. Most of the third estate consisted of peasants. The clergy encompassed one percent of the population. The one percent controlled twenty percent of the land and did not pay taxes. The 2nd estate encompassed the nobility, two percent of the population. The nobility owned twenty-five percent of the land and did not pay taxes. The remaining ninety-seven percent of France belonge d to the third estate. The third estate held less than half the land in France and was forced to support the heavy burden of taxation in the bankrupt nation. The overwhelming gap between the political and economic power of the high and low classes caused resentment in both societies. A miniscule number of people, had privilege, comfort and luxury while the majority of people suffered. Social inequalities would a huge catalyst for both revolutions. The lowest class of each society realized their strength in numbers and passion for their cause. The 3rd estate broke free from France and created the Declaration of the Rights of Man. This document outlined a set of rights that pertained to every man from any class. From there, the 3rd estate moved forward in taking the country. The Haitian slaves utilized their massive population and excellent leadership to overthrow their oppressors. Toussaint Louverture was the leader of the revolution and a pivotal factor in defeating the Europeans. S ignificant overall economic differences were present between Haiti and France before the revolutions occurred. France was nearly bankrupt by the time the revolution began. Wars with England and the American Revolution had been extremely costly for France. The nation was in debt and the social elite were not paying taxes to aid the dying economy. The large economic strain on France caused heavy taxation of the bottom social class. In contrast, the economy of Haiti was not a factor that fueled the revolution. The Haitian economy was thriving. Free labor from slaves created a surplus of goods. Also these two countries had two very different leaders leading the revolutions; the Haitian revolution leader Toussaint Louverture began his military career as a leader of the 1791 slave rebellion in the French colony of Saint Domingue. Initially allied with the Spaniards of neighboring Santo Domingo, Toussaint switched allegiance to the French when they  abolished slavery. He gradually established control over the whole island, expelled British invaders and used political and military tactics to gain d ominance over his rivals. Throughout his years in power, he worked to improve the economy and security of Saint Domingue. He restored the plantation system using paid labor, negotiated trade treaties with Britain and the United States and maintained a large and well-disciplined army. Whereas the French revolution leader Maximilien de Robespierre. Maximilien Marie Isidore de Robespierre was born in Arras on 6 May 1758, the son of a lawyer. He was educated in Paris and entered the same profession as his father. He was elected a deputy of the estates-general (a form of parliament, but without real power) that met in May 1789, and subsequently served in the National Constituent Assembly. He was a politician, and one of the best-known and most influential figures of the French Revolution. Robespierre became increasingly popular for his attacks on the monarchy and his advocacy of democratic reforms. In April 1790, was elected president of the powerful Jacobin political club. After the dow nfall of the monarchy in August 1792, Robespierre was elected first deputy for Paris to the National Convention. The convention abolished the monarchy, declared France a republic and put the king on trial for treason, all measures strongly supported by Robespierre. The king was executed in January 1793. Haitians usually relate the Bois Caà ¯man ceremony as a historical event that started their war of independence, but modern scholarship suggests that details about the episode might owe more to myth than to reality. There probably was not one, but two slave gatherings, one held at the Normand de Mà ©zy plantation in Morne Rouge on August 14, which the French uncovered by torturing slave participants, and another one in Bois Caà ¯man held a week later, about which very little is known. According to Là ©on-Franà §ois Hoffmann’s Haitian the second meeting were invented by Antoine Dalmas in his Histoire de la rà ©volution de Saint-Domingue (1793) in order to portray the slav e gathering as a bloody, satanic assembly. On the other side, The Women’s March on Versailles was one of the earliest and most significant events of the French Revolution. The march began among women in the marketplaces of Paris who, on the morning of 5 October 1789, were near rioting over the high price and scarcity of bread. Their demonstrations quickly became intertwined with the activities of revolutionaries who were  seeking liberal political reforms and a constitutional monarchy for France. The market women and their various allies grew into a mob of thousands and, encouraged by revolutionary agitators, they ransacked the city armory for weapons and marched to the Palace of Versailles. The crowd besieged the palace and in a dramatic and violent confrontation they successfully pressed their demands upon King Louis XVI. The next day, the crowd compelled the king, his family, and most of the French Assembly to return with them to Paris. These events effectively ended the independent authority of the king. The marc h symbolized a new balance of power that displaced the ancient privileged orders of the French nobility and favored the nation’s common people, collectively termed the Third Estate. Bringing together people representing disparate sources of the Revolution in their largest numbers yet, the march on Versailles proved to be a defining moment of that Revolution. To conclude, the series of events that transformed the French colony of Saint-Domingue into the independent nation of Haiti lasted from 1791 to 1804, and the French revolution lasted around ten years, from 1789 until 1799. They both were around the same time, both successful, but had some differences between them such as racial, leadership, also economically different. Popkin, Jeremy D.. A concise history of the Haitian revolution. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. Print. † World at War: Understanding Conflict and Society – Username.† World at War: Understanding Conflict and Society – Username. http://worldatwar.abc-clio.com/Search/Display/1469759?terms=haitian+revolution (accessed May 26, 2013). â€Å"Jean-Jacques Dessalines (emperor of Haiti) — Encyclopedia Britannica.† Encyclopedia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/159337/ (accessed May 26, 2013). Mikaberidze, Alexander . † World at War: Understanding Conflict and Society – Username.† World at War: Understanding Conflict and Society – Username. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 May 2013. . Hugo, Victor. Les miseÃŒ rables. New York: Modern Library, 1992. Print. french revolution.† Gale Virtual Reference Library. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 May 2013.

In Another Place by Ernest Hemingway Essay

The text under analysis is taken from the short story â€Å"In another country† belonging to the pen of Ernest Hemingway, an American novelist and short story writer whose works are characterized by terse minimalism and understatement. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1954. â€Å"In another country† is a powerful and true-to-life story about real experience of many soldiers who came home after the World War I and their hardships. The text presents a piece of narration with element of a description of nature and a dialogue. The narration is done in the first person. Hemingway tells the story from the point of view of the young American. The plot is eventless in events. The story describes the relationships that develop in Milan among an American and five Italian soldiers who have been wounded and are receiving physical therapy. All the wounded men go to the hospital every afternoon to use machines for physical therapy. The doctor assures the American that he will again play football even though his knee does not bend. His friend, an Italian major, is also undergoing therapy with a machine that exercises his hand that was injured in an industrial accident. Four other young men, Italian soldiers, are also using therapy machines, and they brag about the medals that they’ve received for their valor in battle. The plot consists of: Introduction. In this part the author talks about continuation the war and gives the description of autumn Milan. Development. The author introduces us with main character, an American soldier. Tells about him problems with health. Climax. In this part the author leads the Italian major and four other young men. Denouement. The author describes the way of soldiers from the hospital to the Cafà © Cova. The author compares the way with military operations. The mood of the story is established in the first paragraph, in which the dead game outside the shops is described as â€Å"stiff,† â€Å"heavy,† and â€Å"empty.† Loss, failure, and ruin permeate this brief story. Many of the characters grapple with a loss of function, a loss of purpose, and a loss of faith. Hemingway’s style is lean and declarative, but the author employs some stylistic devises. They help enhance the desired effect. The first two illustrate the author’s effective use of repetition and polysyndeton. For example, Hemingway states, â€Å"It was cold in the fall in Milan and the dark came very early.† He repeats this idea with a slightly different emphasis at the end of the paragraph: â€Å"It was a cold fall and the wind came down from the mountains.† The author uses vivid descriptions. For example, â€Å"On one of [the bridges], a woman sold roasted chestnuts. It was warm, standing in front of her charcoal fire, and the chestnuts were warm afterwards in your pockets.†